Human anatomy is the study of the body’s structure – from microscopic tissues to entire organ systems. It forms the foundation for understanding physiology, health, and disease. 🔑 Key principle: Anatomy underpins every clinical decision, from examination to surgery.

📖 Terminology

🦴 Skeletal System

The adult skeleton contains 206 bones. It provides support, protects vital organs, enables movement, and acts as a mineral reservoir. 📌 Bone marrow within long bones produces blood cells (haematopoiesis).

Axial skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum.
Appendicular skeleton: Limbs + pectoral and pelvic girdles.
Clinical: Osteoporosis → fractures of hip, vertebrae, wrist.

💪 Muscular System

Over 600 muscles enable voluntary and involuntary movements. They generate posture, movement, and heat.

Skeletal muscle: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones.
Smooth muscle: Involuntary, in GI tract, vessels.
Cardiac muscle: Specialised, involuntary, only in heart.
Clinical: Myopathies and neuromuscular diseases impair mobility.

🧠 Nervous System

CNS: Brain & spinal cord → integration, control.
PNS: Cranial & spinal nerves → communication with body.
Clinical: Stroke, dementia, neuropathies highlight the importance of neural networks.

❤️ Cardiovascular System

Heart: Central muscular pump.
Vessels: Arteries (oxygen-rich), veins (return flow), capillaries (exchange).
Clinical: Hypertension and atherosclerosis drive morbidity worldwide.

🌬️ Respiratory System

Upper tract: Nose, pharynx, larynx → filter, humidify, phonation.
Lower tract: Trachea, bronchi, lungs → alveolar gas exchange.
Clinical: COPD, asthma, pneumonia → common in elderly & smokers.

🍽️ Digestive System

GI tract: Oral cavity → esophagus → stomach → intestines.
Accessory organs: Liver, pancreas, gallbladder aid digestion.
Clinical: GERD, IBD, and malabsorption syndromes impact nutrition.

💧 Urinary System

Kidneys: Filter blood, maintain electrolyte balance.
Ureters, bladder, urethra: Transport and excrete urine.
Clinical: CKD and UTIs are frequent geriatric presentations.

🧪 Endocrine System

Hormone-secreting glands: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas.
Control metabolism, growth, reproduction.
Clinical: Diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders → common chronic conditions.

👩‍🍼 Reproductive System

Male: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, penis.
Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina.
Clinical: Infertility, PCOS, prostate cancer are major issues.

🛡️ Integumentary System

Skin, hair, nails, sweat & sebaceous glands.
Barrier, thermoregulation, sensory reception.
Clinical: Pressure sores & melanoma are vital considerations.

✅ Conclusion

Human anatomy underpins clinical practice: 🦴 Skeletal → support & movement. 🫀 Cardiovascular & 🧠 Nervous → integration & survival. 🍽️ Digestive, 💧 Urinary, 🧪 Endocrine → metabolism & homeostasis. 👩‍🍼 Reproductive & 🛡️ Integumentary → continuity & protection.

🔑 Take-home: Anatomy is not just structure → it’s the clinical map guiding diagnosis and treatment.

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Anatomy and Physiology: Human

🧍 Introduction